Summary of article # 3 - The Whats, Whys, Hows and Whos of Content-Based Instruction in Second/Foreign Language Education.

The Whats, Whys, Hows and Whos of Content-Based Instruction in Second/Foreign Language Education. 
By: Maria Duenas
   
    This article explores the nature  of the content based methodological frame work, the theoretical foundations that support it and the different models for application in compliances with parameters.  It also provides a number of references selected from the existing literature, contributed by researchers in the field of Content Bases Instuction.

     According to communicative principles, attaining communicative competence that would allow learners to function well in the new language was set as the main objective of instruction. Using the language to communicate was seen as the best way to learn it. The key purpose of the communicative proposal has been “the elaboration and implementation of programs and methodologies that promote the development of functional language ability through learners’ participation in communicative events” (Savignon, 2002: 10).These CLT spin-off approaches include The Natural Approach,Cooperative Language Learning, Content-Based Teaching, and Task-Based Teaching.

     The article discuss the "Whats" of Content-based by providing its description and background.  The best conditions for learning a second/foreign language takes place when both the target language and some meaningful content are included in the classroom. The language is both an immediate object of study in itself, and a medium for learning a particular subject matter. In this case, teachers use content topics rather than grammar rule. This practice of combining language and content for both purposeful linguistic and subject-matter learning originated in Canada around 1965.

      In addition, the author provides the "whys" or theoretical underpinnings of CBI. According to Grabe and Stoller, the research which supports CBI come from many studies in ESL.  Researchers like Krashen and Swain support Content Base Instruction with their work. Krashen (1982, 1984, 1895) claims that second language acquisition occurs when the learner receives comprehensible input, not when he or she is forced to memorize vocabulary or manipulate language by means of batteries of grammar exercises. Those methodological practices which provide students with more comprehensible input are bound to be more successful in attaining the desired goals. Swain (l985,l993) states that, in order for learners to develop communicative competence, they must also have the opportunity of using the new language productively, both orally and in writing.

     Other classroom training research also supports the effectiveness of CBI. Along with these are: research on cooperative learning, research on learning strategy instruction, and research in extensive reading. Cooperative learning requires that small groups of students work together to learn information and perform different tasks, thus promoting peer group support and peer instruction. Cooperative learning leads to greater student participation, increases motivation for learning, develops more positive student attitudes toward school, and promotes greater self-esteem. Cooperative learning also provides students with self confidence and cognitive demands.

     A comprehensive review of the apparent benefits of CBI is found in Grabe and Stoller (1997); the conclusions resulting from these findings suggest seven rationales for CBI that can be recapitulated as follows:

1. In content-based classrooms, students are exposed to a considerable amount of language while learning content. 

2. CBI supports contextualized learning; students are taught useful language that is embedded within relevant discourse contexts rather than as isolated language fragments. 

3. The use of coherently developed content sources allows students to call on their own prior knowledge to learn additional language and content material.

4.  In content-based classrooms, students are exposed to complex information and are involved in demanding activities which can lead to intrinsic motivation.

5. CBI  lends itself well to strategy instruction and practice, as theme units naturally require and recycle important strategies across varying content and learning tasks.

6. CBI allows greater flexibility and adaptability to be built into the curriculum and activity sequences.

7. CBI lends itself to student-centered classroom activities.

  The "Hows" of CBI are described in four models as follows: 

l. Immersion education refers to the teaching, learning concepts and ideas in a language that is not one’s own is hardly a new phenomenon.

2. Sheltered courses is taught in a second language by a content specialist to a group of learners who have been segregated or ‘sheltered’ from native speakers” The term ‘sheltered’ derives from the intended separation of second language students from native speakers of the target language for content instruction purposes.  

3. Adjunct courses constitutes a more sophisticated pattern for the integration of language and content, because adjunct classes are not implemented on their own but aim at assisting an existing regular subject-matter class.

4. Theme-based model.  Theme-based courses probably constitute the most popular and widely used prototype of CBI at all levels of instructions and in both second and foreign language settings. In the theme-based model, courses are autonomous.

    The last part of the article offers numerous authors whose work and experience have contributed in CBI.   In conclusion, Content-Based Instruction has been around since the early l900s providing a flexible teaching framework with optimal scope for the accommodation of the most diverse content areas. The end results of a CBI course strongly offers the most stimulating challenge for language teachers. Most experienced authors agree that experimenting CBI is certainly worthwhile.

Journal #2 How can teachers create classroom dynamics in which learners actually report to each other instead of just answering question?

    I believe that as teachers we should get motivated preparing our ESL classes. A motivated teacher equals motivated students. It's our job to help them learn to acquire a second language efficiently. Let's motivate them into learning English by making it fun and enjoyable. We need to keep up to date with the latest technology that our students are using and bring them into our classes. For instance, we can use videos to encourage discussions of a film. This will eventually help develop comprehension, oral skills and critical thinking skills. 

  I also think that by providing students with a friendly, supportive learning environment, we can help reduce their learning anxieties and therefore boost their learning progress. This is based on Krashen’s “affective filter hypothesis”, which states that anxiety, stress, or tension may hinder a learner’s ability to learn (Krashen, l982). When students are relaxed, they will be able to focus on learning.  

  I also believe that a child learns by doing (constructivism). The teacher should use a variety of methods to stimulate children’s interest and encourage student involvement. It is important to seek out on individual interests, needs, and abilities. Learning by doing is exciting, and the process of participating, contributing, and interacting creates the classroom dynamic in which learners actually report to each other. Again, I insist that motivation plays an important role during language learning. ESL teachers need to engage the students’ motivation with instruction. Constructivism is also closely tied to the multiple intelligences because the recognition of varying learning types is crucial to creating a learning environment.  
  In conclusion, without motivation, you cannot ensure student achievement. Language teachers cannot teach a second language effectively, if they do not understand the relationship between motivation and its effect on language acquisition. Learners need quality instruction and opportunities for meaningful output not only to make progress, but also to maintain motivation for language learning. A good teacher, then, must find ways to identify student’s purposes for studying a language and develop proper motivational strategies. As instructors, we may be the most important factor in influencing our student’s motivation, which is the key element in language acquisition process.

Journal #1

Answer the questions

a. What is the difference between use and usage?

Widdowson distinguishes two aspects of performance: "usage" and "use." He says that "usage"
makes evident the extent to which the language user demonstrates his knowledge to linguistic rules for effective communication.( Widdowson 1998)
Dictionary.com defines "usage" as the customary manner in which a language or a form of a language is spoken or written: English usage; a grammar based on usage rather than on arbitrary notions of correctness. It defines "use" as a way of being employed or used; a purpose for which something is used: He was of temporary use. The instrument has different uses.

b. What is the difference between fluency and accuracy?

Dictionary.com defines " fluency" as the ablilty to speak or write smoothly, easily or readily and it defines " accuracy" as a condition or quality of being true, correct or exact.

c. What is the difference between a functional syllabus and a structional one?

A syllabus is an outline or a summary of work that must be covered for a particular coarse of study. It's also referred as a "design."

- A structural syllabus is a syllabus in which grammatical structures form the central organizing feature. A structural syllabus proceeds from simple grammatical structure to more complex grammatical structure. An example might be something like: Present progressive -> Comparatives -> Simple past -> Past progressive
- Funcional Syllabus moves away from grammatical from and concentrates unstead on "functions" and the programatic purposed to which we apply language. Textbooks that advocate "communicative" language learning usually organize according to a National Functional Syllabus.

Summary of the Article: Benefits and Strategies of Communicative Language Learning by Paul Overland

This article gives the advantages and strategies of communicative language learning since it is an engaging development in the field of ancient language acquisition. The outcome of numerous opportunities for creative teaching will continue to benefit teachers and students in the future.

Communicative language learning strives to bring students beyond grammatical competence where they can manipulate the language in private dialog or reach communicative competence. The advantages is that a language in private dialog resist atrophy longer than a language learned through grammatical explanation and translation exercises.

There are several strategies which influence language learning. They are: private dialog , an emmersion envirnoment and instructional songs.

Private dialog means that students manipulate a language to express their own desires or opinion. In order for learners to progress, they must move from object - regulation to other regulation and finally self regulation. Too often language teaching under estimates the importance of communicative competence, therefore skipping important steps in a students' process towards proficiency. Some techniques suggested are: Fictitious student biographies and visual aids of a comples sort

An immersion envirnment obtains when the target language also server as the language of instuction. When students find themselves surrounded by the target language with little or no dependence on a mediating mother tongue, their ability to think in the target language accelerates dramatically. Techniques for immersion are using the target language for often-repeated phrases.

Instructional songs link selected components such as alphabet, numerals and grammatical structures melody , to aid retention. The student is issued a printed list or chart, and is told that there will be a quiz over the material the following day. By poring over the list, slowly they are embeded in one's memory. It is important to remember that auditory learning is vital to enabling communicative competence. The techniques suggested here is to begin with the desired rhythm , one may develop a simple, slow, repetive melody that can carry the desird word list or phrase into the memory of students.

Summary of the Article Communicative competence and communicative language teaching. By: Atsuko Ohno

This article explains how communication, communicative competency and communicative language teaching contribute to improve the English language teaching in the education system. The author, Atsuko Ohno attempts to clear up confusion among the area of communicative competence, by discussing several theoretical communicataive concepts and their applicatiions to language and methods of teaching language. First, he presents Hymes' work of communicative competence. Second he explains Widdowon's work regarding communicative language teaching. Third, he discusses Canale and Swain's work of communicative competence. Finally in his fourth section he explains the application of commmunicative competence to language teaching, using Stern and Rivers' framework.

Hymes' concept of communicative competence come from Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance. By competence, Chomsky means that the shared knowledge of the ideal speaker - listener set in a completely homogeneous speech community. Performance is concerned with the process of applying the knowledge to the actual language use; encoding and encoding. He also points out Labov's work, that linguistic competence co-varies with the speaker. Futhermore, he states that social life affects not only performance but inner competence itself. He argues that social factors interfere with or restrict grammar use because the rules of use are dominant over the rules of grammar. He insists that the rules of speech are controlling factors for the linguistic form as a whole. He defines communicative competence as a knowledge of the rules for understanding and producing both the referential and social meaning of language.

He continues with some "integrative theories" from Widdowson, which according to him, the idea that once competence is acquired, performance will take care of itself is false. Communicative abilities have to be developed as the same time as linguistic skills. He distinguishes the terms "usage" and "use" to make the discussion of teaching linguistic and communicative competence clear. He states that "usage"makes evident the extent to which the language user demonstrates his knowledge of linguistic rules. The term "use" make evident the extent to which the language user shows his ability to use his knowledge of linguistic rule for effective communication. He also distinguishes two aspects of meaning."significance" and "value". "Significance is the meaning that sentences have in isolation from the particular situation in which the sentence is produced; and "value refers to the meaning that the sentence take on when they are used to communicate. He believes that linguistic context and communicative context must be used in class.

Canale and Swain (1980) believe that the study of grammatical comptence is as essential to the study of communcative competence as is the study of social linguistic competence. Their work focuses on the interacion of social context, grammar and meaning.

Stern (1981) and Rivera (1972) offer two levels of language teaching: "skill-getting" and "skill - using" Through "skill-getting" activities, the teacher isolates specific elements of knowledge and provides the learner with opportunities to practice them separately. With " skills-using", the learner should be on her own and not supported or directed by teacher.

All of these theories are important in teaching foreign language. Foreign language teachers are always affected since approaches to language learning using these theories place a high demand on teachers. Student-teacher relationship are among the most essential ingredients for successful communicative language teaching.